Civil War and Cultural Heritage in Syria, 2011-2015

Mattia Guidetti and Silvia Perini

To Padre Paolo Dall ́Oglio.

May he come back soon to Deir Mar Musa

This article discusses some of the damages the war erupted in Syria in 2011 has caused to the country’s cultural heritage. It consists of four parts. In the Introduction, a background with a timeline of the events of the Syrian war is given. The first part, Syria’s Cultural Heritage, includes an overview of Syrian cultural heritage (Section 1.1) and the institution in charge of its management, organisation and preservation (Section 1.2). The second part, Damages to the Syrian Cultural Heritage, focuses on four different typologies of war damage, from gunfire (Section 2.1) to military occupation of sites (Section 2.2), occupation of sites by civilians (Section 2.3) and plundering, vandalism and illicit trade of cultural material (Section 2.4). Lastly, in the third part, Protection of the Syrian Cultural Heritage, a brief history of Syrian modern involvement in cultural heritage (Section 3.1) and an analysis of the national and international responses to the Syrian crisis(Section 3.2) are offered.

Introduction. From the Damascus Spring to the Civil War (MG)

To better understand the developments of Syrian (civil) war, it is worth looking back to the last decades. In July 2000, after Hafez al-Assad’s death, his second-born son Bashar al-Assad was appointed as president of the Arab Syrian Republic. The election of a president just 35-years old, grown up in Britain, and, at a first glance, at least, less exposed to the dynamics of Syrian politics, suggested a new season of reforms was about to start in Syria. Indeed, the first moves of Bashar al-Assad’s government confirmed all these expectations. It was the beginning of what was then called the “Damascus Spring”. Open debates on Syrian economics and society showed a certain degree of optimism for a peaceful transition from dictatorship to more democratic forms of government. Several intellectuals assembled into a permanent forum, signing, for instance, a public call for economic reforms that aimed at dismantling the crony capitalism affecting Syrian economy, abrogating the emergency law and the article 8 of the Constitution which assures the Ba‘th party the leadership of state and society, and promoting press freedom.1 The hopes triggered by the presidency of Bashar al-Assad were, however, disappointed quite soon by the first concrete political moves: the reluctance of developing economic and social reforms made the “new” Syria similar to the “old” one. Following protests were suppressed and opposition activists jailed. The old leadership of the Ba‘th party prevails against any reformist efforts and the hopes for freedom of association and criticism crushed again.

Ten years later, the stimulus of the Arab Spring, which started in Tunisia in December 2010 and spread, though with different modalities, over countries such as Egypt, Libya, Algeria, Bahrein, Yemen and Jordan, brought people to demonstrate in Syrian streets. After a shy beginning in February 2011, between March 15th and April 8th, the protest spread all over Syrian cities, including Aleppo and the capital Damascus. The repression by the regime was brutal: demonstrations were dispersed and dozens imprisoned. Though some reforms were promised once again, demonstrations continued. Quickly, the intensity of the repression increased and real significant social improvements were set aside by the government.

As the repression worsened, some civilians and the first deserters of the regular army gathered into the Free Syrian Army (FSA) (July 2011), which started to organize earliest military actions of insurgency. Within a period of twelve months, the scenario had completely transformed: military groups fighting in Syria had multiplied. Non-Syrian fighters joined the battle against the regime in Damascus, military units and sub-groups became dozens. In the first six months of 2012, circa ninety attacks set off against the regime by fighters affiliated to al-Qaida took place. It should be mentioned that the Islamist organization at the beginning of the revolt was not organized in the Syrian territory. The regime’s counter attack and the usage of the aviation to repress the insurgency (August 2012) transformed the revolt into a civil war. Civil war had dramatic effects on the life of civilians: UN data (July 2014) report that ca. 6.5 million Syrian had been displaced, whereas UNHCR (July2014) registered ca.3 million of refugees who fled Syria because of the escalation of the bloody events.2

The geographic position of Syria, the diversified ethno-religious groups composing it, and its modern history transformed the civil war into an international geopolitical battleground. Turkey took the side of the insurgents, together with Qatar and Saudi Arabia. Russia, which is granted access to the Mediterranean Sea thanks to its naval bases in Syria, together with Iran, supported instead the regime. Foreigner insurgents reached Syria and built up brigades fighting against the regime. In several cases, the latter are groups inspired by a Sunni militant ideology. Starting with May 2013, Shi‘i fighters of Hezbollahentered Syria from Lebanon and took the side of the loyalist forces.3Despite the progressive worsening of the civil war, media, shed light on Syria only in specific moments, such as for instance the alleged usage of chemical weapons by the regime in theoriental outskirts of Damascus in August 2013, which was followed by an international crisis on the possible military intervention against Syrian regime, or the collapse of the minaret of Aleppo in April 2013, a sort of symbol of the cruelty of the war inSyria.Liberation or tragic deaths of hostages also attracted media attention.In January 2014,ISforces(Islamic State, former Isil and Isis; in Arabic Daʿish) entered Syria from Iraq occupying the north-eastern Syrian governorates of al-Raqqa, Idlib, Deir al-Zor and Aleppo. The Sunni, Jihadist and extremist ideology of IS quickly raised an opposition both within and outside Syria. International concerns about the brutal policies of IS towards non-Sunni communities prepared the ground for a military intervention. On September 2014 a multi-national campaign led by the United States started airstrikes against sites occupied by IS and caravans of IS militants. Though theoretically fighting against the same enemy, the multi-national coalition does not coordinate its interventions with the Syrian government, nor asks for its permission or agreement. Estimates ofthe deaths following the eruption of the civil war vary according to the source: “The human rights data analysis group”, a non-governmental organization, which data are also used by the UN, has issueda report in August 2014 according to which, from 2011 to April 2014, 191369 people lost their lives. According to “The Syrian observatory for human rights”,the number of dead has largely exceeded 250000units (February 2015). Figures include fighters and civilians.FIRST PART –Syria’s Cultural Heritage1.1Ta n g i b l e Cultural Heritage (SP)With a background of the recent political events in place,the first section of the first part of this articleoffers an overview of the Syrian cultural heritage according to both UNESCO and non-UNESCO sources.UNESCO defines “cultural heritage” the combination of the goods that formsthe cultural production of a human being. Cultural heritage is formed bytangible and intangiblegoods. Tangible cultural heritage is made up ofmovable (i.e. paintings, sculptures, coins, manuscripts, archaeological objects, etc.) and

immovable (i.e. monuments, buildings, archaeological sites, etc.)properties, while intangible cultural heritage includesoral traditions, languages, music, performing arts, rituals, etc.4This article focuses on Syrian tangible, both movable and immovable, cultural heritage. Syrian tangible cultural heritage includes: a) UNESCO World Heritage sites, b) non-UNESCO registered archaeological sites, c) historical buildings, and d) museums and museumcollections.a) UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Buildings and MonumentsThe UNESCO World Heritage site (WHS) list includes sites that have an “outstanding universal value”, from either a cultural or a natural prospective. The World Heritage Committee, consisting of representatives from 21 of the States Parties to the Convention elected by their General Assembly, is in charge of the selection criteria of the sites.5The committee meets once a year and the last meeting (the 38th) took place in Doha (Qatar) in June 2014. Currently, the UNESCO World Heritage List is formedby 1007 properties distributed in 161 countries, among which 779 are cultural, 197 are natural, 46 are in danger, 31 are transboundary, two have been delisted, and 31 are mixed.6The UNESCO World Heritage sites in Syria are six, and they are all cultural properties, namely:7•Ancient City of Damascus(Administrative District of Damascus, inscribed inthe WHS in1979); the old city of Damascus claims to be among the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world (from ca. 7000 BC up until now). Although there are visible signs of Roman occupation, especiallyin the urban system, the majority of the buildings located within the old city can be dated to the Islamic period. The most important monuments of the old city include the citadel, city walls and gateways, the Umayyad Mosque, Tomb of Saladin,AzemPalace, Azem Ecole, Maristan Nureddin (Hospital), Suq al-Hamidiyya, and Khan As'ad Pasha (Caravanserai).•Ancient City of Bosra (Deraa Governorate, inscribed in the WHS in 1980);Bosra is one of the major archaeological sitesin Syria containing ruins from Roman (i.e. the theatre, the Nabatean Arch, and the Monastery of Bahira), Byzantine (i.e. the Cathedralof SS Sergiuos, Bacchus and Leontius), and Islamic(i.e. Al-Omari Mosque and Madrasah Mabrak al-Naqua) times. •Site of Palmyra (Homs Governorate,inscribed in the WHS in1980); Palmyra, oasis in the Syrian Desert, was a caravan city and a Roman colony. The most important Roman monuments at the site are the Great Colonnade, the temple of Ba'al, the theatre, the Camp of Diocletianand the necropolis, which is located outside the ancientwalls.•Ancient City of Aleppo (Administrative District of Aleppo, inscribed in the WHS in 1986); Aleppo competes with Damascus the primate of being is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. The old city is enriched by monument from the LateBronze Age(i.e. The Temple of the Storm God at the citadel) to the Ottoman period. Of remarkable importance are the citadel, city walls and gateways, theGreat Mosque, Al-Madina souq, 17th-century madrasas and caravanserais.•Crackdes Chevaliers (Homs Governorate, inscribed in the WHS in 2006) and Qal’at Salah El-Din(Governorate of Latakia, inscribed in the WHS in 2006);the Crack des Chevaliers is one of the best-preserved examples of the Crusader castles in the world. The first evidence of this building dated back to 1031, when it was probably only a small fort. This construction was then considerably expanded during the Crusader period (11th -13th centuries).Qal’at Salah El-Din (or Saladin Castle or Fortress) is also a Crusader castle. This site has been fortified since at least the mid-10th century and it was the scene of one of Saladin’s greatest siege in 1188.•Ancient Villages of Northern Syria(different locations between Aleppo and Idlib, inscribed in the WHS list in 2011);the ancient villages of Northern Syria, also known as the Dead or Forgotten cities of the North, comprisesthe remains of 700 Late Roman/Byzantine deserted town, villages and monastic settlements. According to their geographical location and their proximity with the Limestone Massif they can be grouped into a few areasthat have been transformed into archaeological parks. These include Jebel Semaan (jebelin Arabic means mountain), where the

Monastery-Church of Saint Simeon Stylites or Qalat Sema’an is located, Jebel Barisha, Jebel al-Ala, Jebel Wastani, Jebel Riha (i.e. the villages of Jerada and Ruweiha), and Jebel Zawiya (i.e. the villages of Serjilla and al-Bara) (see also Paragraph 2.3). In addition, is worth to mention the city ofMa'arrat al-Nu'man (Idlib), which, although not to be considerate a dead city, is also located in this area. Ma'arrat al-Nu'man is famous for the museum (thatstored the most important mosaics from the Dead Cities), the Great Mosque of Maarrat al-Numan, a madrasa,and remains ofthe medieval citadel.Because of the ongoing conflict in Syria, in 2013, UNESCO included all the six Syrian World Heritage Sites in the List of World Heritage Sites in danger.8Along with the six WHS, twelve different Syrian properties have been submitted tothe Tentative List:9•NoriasofHama (Hama Governorate, proposed in 1999); Hama is very famous for its norias, a 20 m in diameter waterwheel, that raised water to aqueducts, which supplied water for drinking and irrigation along the Orontes River. They were developed during the Byzantine period. Today only 17 original norias are left unused.•Ugarit (Tell Shamra) (Latakia Governorate, proposed in 1999); Ugarit is located on the Mediterranean and it was an ancient port city at the Ras Shamra. The Syrian site reached its heyday between 1800 and 1200 BC, when it ruled a trade-based coastal kingdom, trading with Egypt, Cyprus, the Aegean, the Hittites, and much of the eastern Mediterranean cities. The most import discovery at the site arethe cuneiform clay tables written in a Northwest Semitic language (Ugaritic),which represent theearliest evidence of the alphabet that gave rise to the orders of Arabic.•Ebla (Tell Mardikh) (Idlib Governorate, proposed in 1999);Ebla was the capital of one of the most important kingdoms in Syria during the third millennium BC and the first half of the second millennium BC. Along with the architectonic remains (i.e. temples, palaces, tombs, etc.) the ancient city of Ebla is also famous for its language, Eblaite,which is considered the earliest attested Semitic language, after Akkadian. More than 20.000 tables were found at the site, in both Sumerian and Eblaite languages.•Mari (Tell Hariri) (Deir ez-Zor Governorate, proposed in 1999);as Ebla, Mari was also the capital of a Bronze Age kingdom. More than 25.000 Akkadian tables were found at the settlement. One of the most important buildingsincludes the Zimri-Lim Palace (a king of Mari), with more than 300 rooms.•Dura Europos (Deir ez-Zor Governorate, proposed in1999);it was a Hellenistic, Parthian and Roman frontier city built on the right bank of the Euphrates river.The most important remains includethe Temple of Palmyrene Gods, the M ithraeum, the synagogue, and the Christian church. Dura Europos is also known as the “Pompeii of the East”, because of the high degree of preservation of its buildings.•Apamea (ArabicAfamia) (Hama Governorate, proposed in 1999);capital of Apamene and third cities of the Seleucid Empire, Apamea has one of the longestand widest surviving monumental colonnade (i.e. cardo) from the Roman East.•Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi(or Eastern Castle)(Deir ez-Zor Governorate, proposed in 1999);it was built at the time of theUmayyad caliphsin the first centuryin the middle of the Syrian Desert. The settlement consists of the caliph palatial complex decorated with arches and columns, large open courtyards, a surrounding wall with bulwarks and towers, gardens and caravanserai.•Maaloula (Rif Dimashq Governorate, proposed in 1999);Maaloula is one of the few villages where Aramaic language is still spoken as a living language.It has impressive monastery and church, parts of which are Byzantine.•Tartus (Tartus Governorate, proposed in 1999);Tartus was founded as a Phoenician colony in the second millennium BC. It became famous in Crusader time as one of the main Crusader towns (and not fortress) in Syria. The original Crusader fortifications consisted of the city and harbour walls and the citadel. Moreover, in the middle of the town stands the very well preserved Cathedral of Our Lady of Tortosa, dated to the Byzantine Period.

•Arwad (or Arado) Isle (Tartus Governorate, proposed in 1999);as Tartus, this tiny island three km off from Tartus, was settled in the early second millennium BC.In the time of the Crusades, the island was used as a staging area by the Crusaders.•Raqqa-Ràfiqa (Raqqa Governorate, proposed in 1999);re-founded after the Macedonians by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in the eight century AD. Today there is only little evidence of howthis place should have been, and this can be observed at the Bagdad Gate, one of the important monuments of early Islamic architecture, and the Qasr al-Banat (the caliph’s palace), which includes the remainsof a large courtyard.•Mari andDura-Europos sites of the Euphrates Valley (Deir ez-Zor Governorate, proposed in 2011)(see above).Moreover, according to the Syrian Directorate-General for Antiquities and Museums (DGAM), at least three more monuments not mentioned inthe UNESCO lists should be remembered:10•Khaled Ibn al-Walid M osque (Homs Governorate); the second most important mosque in Syriaand a significant pilgrimage center,includes the tomb of Khalid ibn Al-Walid, the com panion of the Islamic prophet Mohammad(Islamic Period).•Qala'at Ja'bar (Raqqa Governorate); is a castle on the left bank of the Lake Assad (Euphrates River), built probably in the 11th century. The castle consists of a stone-built wall with 35 bastions, partially surrounded by a dry moat.•Ain Diwar bridge (Hassake Governorate); this bridge was built in the second century by the Romans to give them access to Eastern Anatolia.b) Other non-UNESCO archaeological sitesA complete list of archaeological sites and monuments is the first step towardsthe protection of the cultural heritage. For Jordan11and Iraq12, for example, an open source, web-and geospatially based information system has been already created, namely the Middle Eastern geodatabase for Antiquities (MEGA).13Cheikhmous Ali, from the Association for the Protection of Syrian Archaeology (APSA), argued that “prior to 2011, there were 138 national and foreign archaeological missions excavating on Syrian sites, while there are more than 10.000 tells in the country, and more than 5,000 of those archaeological mounds are scattered in the region of Jazira in northeast Syria”.14A complete official list of the Syria’s archaeological sites does not currently exist. However, more recently there have been some attempts towards the creation of an inventory of Syrian archaeological sites. The DGAM, forexample, is currently working on compiling an electronic list of country’s archaeological sites.15Moreover, a pilot project funded by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Durham University has facilitated the merging of information from two existing research databases (Fragile Crescent Project, University of Durham, and Paleosyr/Paleolib, Universities of Lyon and Nice) to create a unified database that, in collaboration with the DGAM, will form the basis of an inventory of sites and monuments ofSyria.This inventory will include more than 15.000 archaeological sites and monuments.16The Deutsche Archäologische Institut in Berlin (DAI) is also working on a similar project (see also Paragraph 3.2).17A preliminary set of place marks of the most important sites in the Ancient Near East for Google Earth has been created by the Department of Linguistics and Philology of the Uppsala University.18The Pleiades website, a community-built gazetteer of ancient places, also has listed manysites.19An interactive map of the archaeological missions as active in Syria in 2010 has been recently uploaded at the Syrian Heritage in Danger: an International Research Initiative and Network (SHIRIN) website.20TheU.S. Department of State’s Humanitarian Information Unit has also produced a map that identifies the locations of over 1000 well-preserved cultural heritage sites and museums in Syria.21

Figure 1. Syria: Cultural Heritage Sites at Risk (April 2013). Image published online by the U.S. Department of State’sHumanitarian Information Unit.See Note 21.For the time being, theDGAM’s listsof archaeological damaged sitesprovided in the reports published from March 2011 to December 2014can be used to give an ideaof the extensive amount of sites.22According to theseDGAMreports, the number of damaged archaeological sites and monuments in Syria counts 420 sites.23c) Museums and Museum CollectionsAlthough the exact number of archaeological sites in Syria is still uncertain, museumsare much easier to quantify. In Syria, there are 38 museums, two national(in Damascus and inAleppo); 12 regional(inBosra, Daraa, Deir er-Zor, Hama Homs, Idlib, Palmira, Latakia, Quneitra, Raqqa, Suweida and Tartus); 11 dedicated to a specific theme (i.e. the Museum of the Arabic Calligraphy in Damascus, or the Museum of Mosaics at Ma'arrat al-Nu'man in the NW province of Idlib), sevenof popular arts and traditions,and several minor museums,such as those located nearby important archaeological sites and displayed their collections, suchas these at Dura Europos or at Qala'at Ja'bar.241.2The management of the cultural heritage (SP)The DGAM, established in 1946 at the end of the French mandate, is thegovernmental organisation that deals with the management of the archaeological excavations and the conservation and protection ofthe country cultural heritage. The DGAM is associated with the Syrian Arabic Republic Ministry of Culture and has the main office in Damascus. However, DGAM regional branches are distributed within the country. The DGAM general director is ProfessorMaamoun Abdulkarim. The DGAM main objectiveis to inform national andinternational community about the history and the recent discoveries that took place in the country. DGAM main responsibilities can be summarised in the following points:25

•Establish an inventory of cultural property, immobile and mobile, and keep it updated through research and study of archaeological and historical sites;•Manage and administer the Syrian museums, organizing exhibitions in collaboration with universities and foreign institutions;•Supervise the status of archaeological and historical buildings and maintain the necessary measures for their conservation and restoration;•Participate in the excavation of Syrian archaeological sites, independently and in collaboration with foreign missions, ensuring the study, cataloguing and conservation of archaeological heritage;•Adopt appropriate measures to prevent theft, illicit excavations, illegal import and export of archaeological material;•Encourage publications and disseminate research through exhibitions, seminars, and conferences;•Stipulate anddevelop research cooperation between institutions and universities in Syria and abroad.Since the beginning ofthe ongoing conflict in Syria, DGAM is raising awareness about the status of the Syrian sites and museums through several campaigns, which will be discussed in paragraphs3.1and 3.2. SECOND PART –Damages to the Syrian Cultural Heritage2.1 Mortar and Gun Fire (MG)As already mentioned above, Syria features an impressive urban continuity. The downtown areas of several Syrian cities are a sort of palimpsest with traces of different eras of Syrian civilization. Elsewhere, instead, the old nucleus was abandoned and only recently smaller settlements have developed beside archaeological areas (it is the case, for instance, of al-Rusafa, nearby Aleppo). Other important archaeological sites, such as the so-called “dead cities”, remained instead in rural areas where the only human activity carried out today is sheep farming.This introduction is essential in order to have a fullunderstanding thedamages caused by the fighting between the loyalist forces and the insurgents.26An emblematical case is the old town of Aleppo, the second cityin the country and the largest of the northern region of Syria. Since its inscription in the World Heritage List in 1986, the old town has been repeatedly studied and restored. An important restoration, concluded in 2008, was financed and carried out by the Aga Khan trust for culture with the partnership of DGAM.27The earliestsettlement in Aleppo developed in thesecond millennium BCin the area now known as the citadel of Aleppo. The slow bedding process of the numerous pre-classical urban phases brought to the creation of the distinctive hill (tell) used in the following period as palatial and military citadel dominating the surroundings. Remains of the pre-classical era have been continuously uncovered thanks to archaeological excavations. During the campaigns 1996-2006, for instance, a Syrian-German team brought to light the remains of an important temple datedto the Bronze and Iron ages entitled to the Storm God. Outstanding figurative reliefs, dated to ca.1400 and 900 BC, portray the God and his court coupled with a local king.28Part of the temple material has been reused in the successive eras, including some stone blocks reused in the masonry of a mosque built on the same site during the medieval period.29The city of Aleppo developed all around this very old core. Traces of the urban grid established in the Hellenistic period are still recognizable. Under the Seleucid dynasty, developed out of the heritage of Alexander the Great, Aleppo was given the typical Hippodamian layout together with the Hellenistic institutions.30Different dynasties have shaped Aleppo according to their religious belief and to the economic resources on a macro-regional scale. During late antiquity, under the Byzantine rule, Aleppo was scattered with dozens of churches, among which the cathedral located on the western side of the citadel. During the Muslim period, starting with the eighth century, a great mosque was built on a burial site nearby the cathedral. Later on, in the medieval period, since the eleventh century on, the sacred

landscape was radically transformed: some churches were converted into mosques (a phenomenon not occurring after the seventh-century Islamic conquest, but rather later on), while new mosques and Muslim theological schools (madrasas) were established.In the medieval period, Christian minorities, such as for instance the Armenian or the Chalcedonian communities, despite maintaining an important role within the city, were forced to move in specific quarters. The area around the mosque remained pivotal for the commercial activities and the structures built to facilitate trading (souk) were transformed generation after generation. The actual architectural complex belongs to the Ottoman period, and more precisely to the eighteenth century, when monumental sub-unities and corridors to connect the different sectors were erected. The uniqueness of Aleppo marketplacelies in its extension: twelve hectares assigned only to commercial activities. Under the Ottomans the city featured several bathhouses open to citizens. The citadel retains at once military and sacred functions. Despite the Christian churches built on thecitadel under the Byzantines were converted into mosques in the medieval period, a general continuity in the worship is visible in the association of one of the mosques with the prophet Abraham. At the same time the citadel was fortified and the peak of its militarization was reached in the thirteenth century, whenalso the monumental entrance provided with a series of tight turns aiming at driving back the besiegers was set up.The civil war erupted in 2011 has dramatically transformed the historical centreof Aleppo. By virtue of its elevated position, the citadel, forcenturies exploited as a military base –and often so by military forces alien to the local population as in the case of the Turkish-Ottoman soldiers and those from France during the Mandatarian period –, has been elected as the favouriteplace from where controlling the city by the regular Syrian army. All throughout the city centre,including in the market area, gunfire and armed clashes occurred(Fig. 02). The eighteenth-century structures of the market area were very seriously damaged during the fighting. The peak of the damages took place at about the end of September 2012. Units of the regular army and insurgents clashed within the market area (souk) and around 1500 shops were destroyed (Fig. 03).31Figure 2. Fighting and fires occurring at the market area of Aleppo. Photopublished online by The Guardian on the 1stof October 2012.

Figure 3. A street of Aleppo’s market, 18thof April 2013.Photopublished online by APSA.The presence of the regular army on top of the citadel has put in danger the architectural structures of the stronghold. During the month of August 2012, a group of insurgents, collectively known as the Brigades of the Free Syrian Army sieged the fortified citadel.Gunfireand artillery hit the walls and particularly the monumental entry to the citadel.The same congregational mosque of Aleppo (the cathedral mosque in which on Friday historically Muslims gathered) was not left untouched. The mosque was established in the Umayyad period, during the eight century, and since then called the Mosque of the Umayyads. During the following centuries, the mosque was the scenario for popular uprisings and related repressions by the central government. Themosque was damaged and rebuilt several times. In the eleventh century,a square-based minaret was added on the north-western corner, while the rest of the building, especially the sanctuary of the mosque on the southern side, was then heavily reconstructed during the Ottoman period. The presence of a sanctuary devoted to Zachary, father of John the Baptist, makes the mosque of Aleppo comparable to the great mosque of Damascus in which John the Baptist is venerated, constituting one of the sources of sacredness of the mosque. In October 2012, shoot fightingoccurred within the perimeter of the mosque. To be damaged was not only the portico of the courtyard –especially on the northern side devastated by a fire –but also the prayer hall or sanctuary, the most sacred area of the building. The effects of the devastation and shootings are well visible in some images taken after the battle (Figs. 04-06).

Figure 4. A fire destroying the northern portico of the courtyard of the Mosque of the Umayyads of Aleppo.Photopublished online by the BBC, accessed 16 October, 2012,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19952793Figure 5. The porticoes after the fires. Photo published online by the BBC, accessed 16 October, 2012,http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19952793